Bound for the Cape of Good Hope: the fate of the Osler Party, 1820.

On 11 November 1820, a letter was published in the Royal Cornwall Gazette detailing the experiences of a party of settlers who had migrated from Falmouth to the Cape Colony at the tip of South Africa. (1) It was written by William Mallett, a 45-year-old mason from Penryn, who along with his wife Elizabeth and 10 other families, had travelled aboard the ship Weymouth to Cape Town and finally to Port Elizabeth (now Gqeberha) with the intention of settling in a new land. The letter depicted the hopes, optimism and challenges experienced early on in a venture that ultimately failed. What was the historical context of Osler party to South Africa in 1820?  Who were William and Elizabeth Mallett of Penryn and what was their fate? Why did the venture fail and was that typical of the wider scheme to Anglicise the Cape Colony?

The Amazon at Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay, Uitenhage Division, 1852 by T. Baines & W. Simpson.

Baines, T (artist); Day and Son (engravers); Rudolph Ackermann (publishers); Simpson, W (engraver), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (i)

This specific expedition was led by Benjamin Osler, a merchant from Falmouth, and took the form of a joint stock party with each member providing their own deposit. (2) But this was part of a larger migration program in post-Napoleonic Britain which saw approximately one million subsidised to emigrate to the colonies by 1840. There were 90, 000 applicants for the South African scheme but only 4, 000 were accepted along with another thousand who were self-funded. Settlers were granted 100 acres as part of a scheme that in regard to the Cape Colony as much about stablising and expanding interior settlement as it was about providing a solution to growing poverty and inequity at home that had been exacerbated by an extended period of conflict. (3) Perhaps William Mallett's personal enthusiasm to migrate is reflected in the fact that he wrote to the Secretary of State for the Colonies on 6 November 1819 having engaged to participate, enquiring about the particulars of the voyage specifically the date and point of departure (!). (4) It can be assumed that part of that anxiety related to the fact that he had already paid the nominal deposit of 10 pounds. The Malletts were probably representative of many of the self-funded migrants in that they were mostly skilled and possessed some small amount of capital. (5)

The acquisition of the Cape Colony by the British had been itself an inadvertent result of the Napoleonic wars. The Prince of Orange had ordered its surrender to the British in 1795 following the French invasion of the Netherlands. Dutch rule was reasserted from 1803 but in 1806 as part of a wider geopolitical strategy, the British retook the colony and were to rule it for another century. (6) The Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty in 1814. (7) The remaining Dutch elite were an asset to the British and combined with significant reforms, the economy had begun to grow. (8) While there are some accounts that the English looked down at the Dutch residents as being 'lazy', William Mallett was to comment in 1820 that the local Dutch farmers 'appear very civil people'. (9) The great source of anxiety by those attempting to Anglicise the territory was indigenous resistance and expansion on the Eastern frontier. (10) 

Map of the Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, c. 1835 —note the indicated locations of settler farms within the division of Albany.

I created the map, based partly on the source map: Eastern frontier of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope from Algoa Bay to the Great Kei River, which appears opposite page 620 of ‘The autobiography of Lieutenant-general Sir Harry Smith’ by G.C.B. Bart, Chapter xlviii, published 1903, as part of the online Build a Book initiative. JMK 11:03, 26 December 2007 (UTC), CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons (ii)

Overall, William Mallett's letter home reflects the early enthusiasm and optimistic hopes for the colony.  The voyage appears to have been long, but relatively smooth. The ship made the Canary Islands on 24 January, anchoring at Palma. An encounter with a Spanish pirate brig was probably the first reminder of the dangers associated with migration in the period. While the brig stood across their bow, the Weymouth fired in response and brought her to, letting them go after an inspection. On 21 February they experienced their first squall which William described it as 'terrible', followed by another before they reached the equatorial line on 2 March. The heavy rain had thankfully replenished the ship's fresh water supply. They clearly enjoyed the journey as there are mentions of fishing, including catches of turtles, sharks and a 'fine dolphin'. After crossing the Tropic of Capricorn on 2 April, they finally spotted the Cape of Good Hope on 25 April. On 9 May the ship sailed from Table Bay for Algoa Bay, which is still 500 miles distant from Cape Town! They anchored there on 18 May, disembarked within two days and began a trek that took them 120 miles overland, involving five to six wagons. This was clearly a hard journey as he notes that as there were no lodgings available, all the party had to sleep either inside or under their wagons. Thankfully they arrived at Bathurst Town on 30 May. (11) 

1820 Settlers camped near the Big Fish River, Date Unknown by Frederick Timpson.

J. J. Redgrave & Edna Bradlow, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons (iii)

As hard as life must have been, William Mallett at least appears to have felt no regrets about undertaking the migration. By the time he came to write his letter on 3 July 1820, the couple resided in a little hut complimented by a tent. He related the news that they have been able to grow or acquire plenty of food as he mentions due to the 'healthiest climate in the world' that '...anything will grow any time of the year, and we can get two or three crops a year.' Regardless, they were receiving subsidised rations from the government which included a pound and a half of mutton, a pound of bread and a 'noggin' of brandy per day for 6d. They were able to purchase tea for 3s a pound, rice, sugar, soap, candles and more (presumably from Bathurst). They had also started to accumulate livestock in the form of five sheep. Significantly he notes that they possessed 'no desire to leave it again to return to England'. But this was still the wild frontier, and he indicates the aided a party of several men including a preacher who had been lost in the wilderness. The preacher returned to the party the following Sunday and they were able to form a 'class of eleven' which he suggested was the first Methodist church formed by the settlers in the new country. Even so, by July there appear to be hints that a shift to nearby Bathurst was on the cards. Mallett wrote: '...I do expect to remove into Bathurst soon to live, the officers tell me I shall be wanted in soon; our wages is about 2s. per day, it is a most delightful spot, and we shall have land enough there.' This alludes to a realisation that the 100-acre allotments at Pendennis were inadequate for their needs. (12) 

In fact, in July 1820, William Mallett remained so optimistic of the opportunities offered by the colony that he appears to have been encouraging relatives to join him. In the letter he declares: 'Send me Jonathan, and it will be better than a fortune for him; let him go to London and he will get a passage in an East Indiaman cheap, and if he comes to Cape Town, or Simon's Town, he can get a passage to Algoa bay, and there he can come up with the waggons...' This is likely a clue as to William's identity. A Jonathan Mallett was born at Penryn around 1799 to a John Mallett and his wife Prudence (formerly Tresidder). Our William was likely John's brother making Jonanthan his nephew. Jonathan didn't migrate himself but remained in Penryn and married Mary Fittock in 1828; at least three of their sons (Jonathan junior, William and Jaspar) as well as a grandson (Alfred) also became masons. A William Mallett who had been born at Penryn around 1779 married a Margaret Piper and together they had at least two children (Elisabeth born around 1800 and Jenefer born around 1803). We can't be certain this is the same person as our letter writer as his occupation is not listed on either baptism record, but a witness to the wedding was indeed a John Mallett. It is possible then that by 1819, William might have already been widowed and remarried before making the decision to emigrate. William and Elizabeth Mallett were not accompanied by any children to the Cape Colony and as they were both aged in their mid-forties by that time, a lack of fecundity may have even been an advantage when venturing into the unknown. (13)

Map of Osler's Party Land allocation (Pendennis), 1820, (now Grove Hill in the Mansfield Game Reserve), prepared by Colin Woollcott Mallett

Prepared with google maps and based on 'Settler Farm Outline: Pendennis' by Paul Tanner-Tremaine, British 1820 Settlers to South Africa Website (iv)

The 'new town' established by the Osler party, about 12 miles South of Bathurst, was named Pendennis in honour of the old country. Yet within a couple of years Osler and most of his family had relocated back to Cornwall. He was succeeded by another member of the party, a shoemaker named John Dale, but the party gradually dissipated. Philip Payton has argued that this was most likely due to a lack of agricultural skill among the party members, in addition to a lack of adequate finance. Some members gravitated to nearby Grahamstown, while the Malletts themselves relocated to Uitenhage near Port Elizabeth. (14) Robert Ross has observed that hardship made most settlers understand that it was a direct connection with the government that provided opportunity. (15) Aran S. McKinnon has further suggested that many other circumstantial factors played a role in the failure, including persistent drought, crop disease, floods and indigenous resistance. (16)

Indeed, in March 1823 a statement was sent to the Secretary of State for the Colonies and signed by approximately 170 British settlers. The general sentiment was that the colonial government did not understand what support was needed in such a foreign environment. There were two central criticisms expressed concerning the scheme. Firstly the 100-acre grant was seen as inadequate, and it is indicated that about 4000 acres was required for a settler to achieve subsistence level. Secondly the settlers were hampered by the systematic withholding of two thirds of the deposit which they claimed it had been stipulated they were to be repaid on relocation. The removal of the magistracy, troops and government support from the settlement of Bathurst appears to have compounded those problems as well as providing encouragement for indigenous resistance—which all served to further distract them from their role as farmers. The lack of access to a wider market due as much to administrative policy as geographic isolation, also hampered their progress. It's understandable then that many settlers were drawn back to 'more profitable pursuits' in the more distant population centres. (17) Among the signatories was a 'J. Weeks' who is likely the James Weeks, baker and confectioner, who had been a member of the Osler Party who by that time relocated to Grahamstown and eventually died there in 1835. (18)

1820 Settlers National Monument

Witstinkout, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons (v)

The Osler party of 1820 was part of wider scheme of migration aimed at stabilising and developing the newly acquired Cape of Good Hope Colony. The experiences detailed in the letter written by William Mallett, a member of the Osler party, give a firsthand insight into the challenges involved in the process of migration. He belonged to a skilled, working-class family that was perhaps suffering or at least hampered, during a period of economic uncertainty and social unrest. His enduring optimism may have been as much an indication of the levels of frustration with his limited prospects for improvement at home in post-Napoleonic England then it was of the true degree of promise found in the new country.  His ultimate fate, along with that of his wife, is unclear although he seemed determined to remain in the colony apparently relocating to Uitenhage with the dissolution of the Osler Party.  While the subsidised migration scheme was genuine in its methods, it was poorly executed. The migrants were arguably unprepared, allocated inadequate allotments and given insufficient support. The challenges faced by the members of the Osler party then were probably typical of those involved in the scheme. By 1823 there was evident widespread dissatisfaction among the British settlers in the colony with the colony's administration. A settler statement to the Secretary of State for the Colonies prepared that year was signed by a former member of the Osler party. These barriers to prosperity resulted in many abandoning their grants and seeking opportunities in the population centres or in the case of the party leader himself, Benjamin Osler, returning home to England. 

- Dr. Colin Woollcott Mallett, 4 June 2025.

ENDNOTES

(1) 'New African Settlements', Royal Cornwall Gazette, 11 Nov 1820. I think it likely that the letter home was based on a diary - perhaps either kept by William or Elizabeth - as the surviving extract relates events, dates and places with a high level of detail. 

(2) M. D. Nash, The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers, Cameleon Press, Johannesburg, 1987, p. 97.

(3) Aran S. Mackinnon, The Making of South Africa: culture and politics, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River NJ, 2004, p. 54.

(4) National Archives, Kew CO48/41-46, as reproduced here: Sue Mackay, 'William Mallett, 1820 Settler', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 4 April 2015, MALLETT, William, 1820 Settler - 1820 Settlers South Africa - Correspondence , accessed 3 April 2025. 

(5) National Archives, Kew CO48/47, as reproduced here: Sue Mackay, 'Settler Returns', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 8 April 2015, OSLER's Party - 1820 Settlers South Africa - Correspondence , accessed 3 April 2025. In fact, the total deposit money collected for the voyage prior to departure amounted to 137 Pounds 10 Shillings and the fee appears to have related to the numbers and ages of the members of each family. The entire party of 43 people consisted of 11 men, 8 women, 1 child over and 23 children under 14 years.

(6) Robert Ross, Status and Responsibility in the Cape Colony 1750-1870: a tragedy of manners, Cambridge University Press, Cambridgem 1999,  pp. 40-3.

(7) Hywel Williams, Cassell's Chronology of World History, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 2005, p. 364. The deal involved a payment of 20 million pounds to the Netherlands to acquire the colony. 

(8) Ross, Status and Responsibility in the Cape Colony 1750-1870, p. 46 & MacKinnon, The Making of South Africa, p. 49. Important measures according to MacKinnon were the shift away from the loan-farm system to full private owndership of farms and the widescale importation of merino sheep that facilitated improved wool exports. 

(9) Ross, Status and Responsibility in the Cape Colony 1750-1870, p. 42 & 'New African Settlements'

(10) McKinnon, The Making of South Africa, p. 54.

(11) 'New African Settlements'

(12) 'New African Settlements'

(13) Mallett, Colin Woollcott, Mallett Research Folder 1, Unpublished research project, F001 MALLETT Folder (1) , accessed 2 April 2025. Specifically refer to sections PenrynMallettsM, QQQ & UU. This study on the Malletts of Penryn has been based largely on data accessible on the Cornwall OPC (Online Parish Clerks) database: Gill Hart & Bill O'Reilly, Cornwall OPC database, https://www.cornwall-opc-database.org/search-database/, accessed 2 April 2025. Interestingly, several of my Mallett relatives - close and distant - share small autosomal DNA matches with various descendants of John and Prudence Mallett of Penryn. 

(14) Philip Payton, The Cornish Overseas: A History of Cornwall's Great Emigration, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, 2020, p. 64.

(15) Ross, Status and Responsibility in the Cape Colony 1750-1870, p. 61.

(16) McKinnon, The Making of South Africa, p. 55.

(17) National Archives, Kew CO48/61, p. 401 as reproduced here: Sue Mackay, 'Settler Statement, 1823', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 5 January 2011, https://www.eggsa.org/1820-settlers/index.php/correspondence/letters-after-1820/s-writers-surnamed-s/1738-settler-statement-1823 , accessed 2 April 2025. One of the signatories was Major George Pigot, the son of Lord Pigot of Patshull who during his lifetime had served as Governor of Madras.  

(18) Paul Tanner-Tremaine, 'James Weeks', British 1820 Settlers to South Africa website, https://www.1820settlers.com/genealogy/getperson.php?personID=I36325&tree=master , accessed 2 April 2025.

FIGURES & ILLUSTRATIONS

(i) T. Baines (Artist) & W. Simpson (Engraver), 'The Elizabeth at Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay, Uitenhage Division, Rudolph Ackerman Publishing, 1852, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Amazon_at_Port_Elizabeth,_Algoa_Bay,_Division_of_Uitenhage_RMG_PY0565.tiff , accessed 2 April 2025.

(ii) Unknown creator, 'Map of the Eastern Frontier, Cape of Good Hope, c. 1835', (based on 'Eastern Frontier of the Colony from Algoa Bay to the Great Kei River' in G. C. B. Bart, The Autobiography of Lieutenant General Sir Harry Smith, Chapter xlviii, 1903) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Eastern_Frontier%2C_Cape_of_Good_Hope%2C_ca_1835.png , accessed 2 April 2025.

(iii) Frederick Timpson, '1820 Settlers camped near the Great Fish River', Date Unknown, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Frederick_Timpson_I%27Ons04.JPG , accessed 2 April 2025.

(iv) Colin Woollcott Mallett, 'Map of Osler's Party Land Allocation (Pendennis), 1820,' prepared on Google Maps application, https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1wjqDxqjI9ERWy5kfpo636BLQm-Q9Iu4&usp=sharing (based on Paul Tanner-Tremaine, 'Settler Farm Outline: Pendennis', British 1820 Settlers to South Africa website,  https://www.1820settlers.com/genealogy/maps/settlermap_pendennis.php), both accessed 2 April 2025.

(v) Unknown creator, '1820 Settlers National Monument', Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1820_Settlers_National_Monument.jpg , accessed 2 April 2022. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources:

National Archives, Kew CO48/41-47, CO48/61

Royal Cornwall Gazette

Secondary Sources:

MacKinnon, A. S., The Making of South Africa: culture and politics, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River NJ, 2004.

Nash, M. D., The Settler Handbook: A New List of the 1820 Settlers, Cameleon Press,Virginia, 1987.

Payton, P., The Cornish Overseas: A History of Cornwall's Great Emigration, (Revised and Updated Edition), University of Exeter Press, Exeter, 2020.

Ross, R., Status and Responsibility in the Cape Colony 1750-1870: a tragedy of manners, Cambridge University Press, Cambridgem 1999.

Williams, H., Cassell's Chronology of World History, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 2005.

Online Sources:

Hart G. & O'Reilly, B., Cornwall OPC Database, https://www.cornwall-opc-database.org/search-database/, accessed 2 April 2025. 

Mackay, S., 'Settler Returns', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 8 April 2015, OSLER's Party - 1820 Settlers South Africa - Correspondence , accessed 3 April 2025. 

Mackay, S., 'Settler Statement, 1823', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 5 January 2011, https://www.eggsa.org/1820-settlers/index.php/correspondence/letters-after-1820/s-writers-surnamed-s/1738-settler-statement-1823 , accessed 2 April 2025.

Mackay, S., 'William Mallett, 1820 Settler', 1820 Correspondence, eGGSA Library website, 4 April 2015, MALLETT, William, 1820 Settler - 1820 Settlers South Africa - Correspondence , accessed 3 April 2025.

Mallett, Colin Woollcott, Mallett Research Folder 1, Unpublished research project, F001 MALLETT Folder (1) , accessed 2 April 2025.

Tanner-Tremaine, P, 'James Weeks', British 1820 Settlers to South Africa website, https://www.1820settlers.com/genealogy/getperson.php?personID=I36325&tree=master , accessed 2 April 2025.

Tanner-Tremaine, P. 'Settler Farm Outline: Pendennis'. British 1820 Settlers to South Africa website, https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1wjqDxqjI9ERWy5kfpo636BLQm-Q9Iu4&usp=sharing , accessed 2 April 2025.

Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page, accessed 2 April 2025.

What's in a name? Or 'The art of interpreting the science of Y-DNA'

Y-DNA testing offers researchers a tantalising window into the past without the transitory limitations of autosomal testing. Y-DNA opens up the possibility of tracing your direct male lineal descent as far back as chromosomal Adam. (1) Y-DNA also has decided advantages over the mitichondrial testing (MT-DNA), the female equivalent: unlike MT-DNA, Y-DNA material provides regular mutation rates allowing more accurate dating estimates. (2) Combined with forensic archeology it is possible to trace your direct male lines migratory history helping to fill out the ancient narrative. (3) Again, in this article I'm going to be using my own results to illustrate my points for reasons of both convenience and familiarity.

World migration path of Y-DNA haplogroup R-BY72189 prepared by Colin Woollcott Mallett

Map: Aristocat123, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons; Data: Big Y Testing at FTDNA (i)

A haplogroup is a genetic population that share a common ancestor with a specific Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism mutation (SNP). The most common sub-set lineage among Europeans is the haplogroup R1b1a2 or R-M269. (4) My own terminal (most recent) haplogroup is R1b-BY72189 and its trail of polymorphisms descending from R-M269 is comprised of: R-L23, R-L51, R-P310, R-P312, R-Z290, R-L21, R-S552, R-DF13, R-ZZ10_1, R-CTS3386, R-S19268, R-FGC13300, R-S9793, R-S9797, R-FT1617, R-BY42759, R-BY43560, R-BY72189. (5) The technology has a second trick up its sleeve: Short Tandem Repeat (STR) marker testing is used to fill in the gaps between SNPs and is more suited to interpreting more ‘recent’ ancestry within the last several hundred years. The more remote the Most Recent Common Ancestor between two kits, the more markers in common are dropped. (6) 

Migration path map of Haplogrpoup R-L21 to R-BY43560 prepared by Colin Woollcott Mallett

Map: Paasikivi, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons; Data: Big-Y testing at FTDNA (ii)

Using my SNP results we can extrapolate that direct male ancestor, a ‘proto-Celt’ from the Atlantic coast of the continent, belonging to either the haplogroup R-DF13 or its immediate downstream successor R-ZZ10_1, arrived in what would later be known as England around 2500 BCE (Before Common Era). Over the next thousand years his direct descendants moved steadily Northwards before a male - likely of the haplogroup R-CTS3386 - migrated to what we know now as Ireland around 1400 BCE. Four bodies interred in the burial ground at The Bishop’s Seat, Kilteasheen, County Roscommon, Connacht Province, which was in use between 600 to 1300 CE (Common Era), descend from the R-ZZ10_1 line; this indicates a shared ancestor born around 2500 BCE. However, another body, ‘Kilteasheen34’ belongs to haplogroup BY42759 and therefore shares a much more recent common ancestor born around 200 CE. Additionally drawing on STR matching, I matched only one kit at the 111 marker level (out of a total database of close to 600, 000) and he also has the surname MALLETT. The specific test results (only 8 STRs dropped from 111) and subsequent exchange of genealogical research has suggested that we may have shared an ancestor that lived within the last 10-15 generations (estimated to have been born between 1450 and 1700 CE). (7) Therefore, by scientifically merging the genetic fate with the forensic archaeology enables a basic narrative of direct descent to be constructed.

Chart of descent from Haplogroup R-BY42759 prepared by Colin Woollcott Mallett

Based on analysis provided by the R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project, FTDNA, 2019. (iii)

In a sense, a haplogroup is a 'genetic surname' for men, one that evades the vagaries of fate. I would argue that we can fill out more of the wider 'family' story through analysis of the etymology and geographical association of the surnames held by those tested. Looking above at a chart (figure iii) of the specific descendants of haplogroup R-BY42759, it's immediately noticeable that several surnames are repeated, specifically FERGUSON, CARROLL and MILBURN.  There are in fact three CARROLL and three FERGUSON descendants. One of the FERGUSON lines is separated from the other two by a divergence estimated to have occurred around 1050 CE!  Equally, one of the surnames for instance on that arm of the chart belongs to a JAMES (which is not a particularly Celtic surname at all!) sharing a node with the third FERGUSON as late as 1800 CE. This is a reminder that when we study a chart of haplogroup descent, each line is labelled with a surname endpoint. But what this chart does suggest to me is that select lines descending from BY42759 have either settled or remained in a specific region (or regions in Ireland and Scotland) where either of those two surnames, CARROLL and FERGUSON, are common. (8) 

Family plot of the CARROLL family, Knockbridge, County Louth, Leinster Province, Ireland.

The Carroll Family Plot at the old Catholic burial ground at Knockbride by Eric Jones, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons (iv)

The surname CARROLL was first associated with the Kingdom of Oriel (situated within the modern counties of Louth and Monaghan) and later became common in County Offaly. In fact CARROLL is one of the twenty five most common surname in Ireland (9) 

'Ferguson' by R. R. McIan from James Logan's The Clans of the Scottish Highlands, 1845.

Robert Ronald McIan (1803-1856)., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (v)

Meanwhile, the FERGUSON clan is closely associated with Ayrshire, Scotland. (10) From the Third Century CE, the 'Scoti' migrated from Ireland to 'Caledonia'. By approximately 500 CE, they were well established in Dalriada (comprising of Argyllshire and the islands of Jura, Islay and Iona). Clan FERGUS(S)ON claims descent from King Fergus mor McErc who it is believed established the Scottish monarchy. (11) 

Image from Myths and Legends; the Celtic Race by T. W. Rolleston, 1910.

Internet Archive Book Images, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons (vi)

In fact, according to the ancient genealogies of Ireland, King Fergus himself was said to be a descendant of King Niall of the Nine Hostages, the 128th High King of Ireland, in turn descended from 110th High King of Ireland Conn of the Hundred Battles, himself a descendant of King Heremon, who along with his brother King Heber were said to be the first of the Milesian Kings of Ireland. (12) There is a theory that the Royal haplogroup is R-M222 and a staggering 21.5% of the male population in North Western Ireland are said to share this genetic fingerprint. (13) The haplogroup's descendants are most common in the North of Ireland and possessed laregly by those with surnames closely associated with the Neill clan including DOHERTY, GALLAGHER, O'REILLY and QUINN. (14) The estimation of the age of the R-M222 mutation does approximately allign with the period of his rule which began in 379 CE. (15) But it must be kept in mind that even High King Niall is a 'quasi-historical' figure, although the Y-DNA evidence is highly suggestive of a most fecund shared ancestor for that haplogroup's descendants (16). My own terminal haplogroup BY72189, like R-M222 itself, is a subclade of R-DF13, but our last direct common ancestor then lived about 2500 BCE — so even if there were still a High King of Ireland, I doubt any of us of downstream from haplogroup R-BY42759 would be candidates! (17)

Border Rievers at Glinnockie Tower by George Cattermole

G Cattermole, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (vii)

Returning to the R-BY42759 chart (figure iii), the descendants of the node estimated to have occurred around 500 CE appear to have experienced some kind of cultural shift, in that they share what could be described as more Anglo-Norman surnames: ROBBINS, VANCE and MILBURN. This would suggest a downstream exposure to a Norman influence over several generations perhaps as a result of their invasion of Ireland from 1169 CE or perhaps migration to 'Normanised' England or Scotland. As discussed in a previous article, MALLETT (originally MALET) is either a Norman or Norman inspired surname. (18) ROBBINS is derived from the personal name Robert introduced by the Normans. (19) The surname VANCE is thought to be a modernised version of the Norman de VAUX. (20) MILBURN is in fact a notorious Border Reiver surname. (21) It is known that some members of the descendant haplogroup R-S11304 took the surnames THOMPSON and CLARK which are also classed as surnames that are Norman in origin. (22)  All these clues point to several lines descending from the 500 CE node sharing common experiences of either assimilation with and/or migration into the 'Anglosphere', which matches the narrative suggested by the migratory charts provided at the beginning and brings us full circle. 

In conclusion, Y-DNA is a happy accident of evolution. It's a technology that opens a unique, inadvertent window into the past. Like all DNA technologies, Y-DNA testing requires careful interpretation of results but its generally more revealing than studies of MT-DNA thanks to a faster mutation rate. Attention to endpoint surnames, specifically their etymology and geographical associations I think can be a valuable technique to help develop a richer, more expansive narrative. Taking into consideration the migatory pathways demonstrated by my sibling lines the FERGUS(S)ON clan and the MILBURN family that both had an association with Ayrshire, it's possible that my own ancestral patrilenial migration story may vary from that depicted in figure ii. Our specific journey may have also involved a geographic reversal of direction from Ireland, back through Scotland, then gradually southwards through the English midlands (wherein one line of the MALLETT family established themselves in Warwickshire) and then westwards to eventually settle in Cornwall.

- Dr. Colin Woollcott Mallett, 14 February 2025 (updated due to my new terminal haplogroup being assigned on 10 June 2025).

Endnotes

(1) Until recently, Chromosonal Adam was considered to be the most recent common male ancestor of all modern humans, Y-DNA in the form of a Y-Chromosome being passed down from fathers to sons, mutating at a fairly constant rate of around every 125 years or perhaps around 3-4 generations. Chromosomal Eve is the female equivalent but her MT-DNA is passed on to both male and female children. Its unlikely they coexisted but were both members of larger populations. See: Ewen Callaway, 'Genetic Adam and Eve did not live too far apart in time', nature website, 6 August 2013, https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2013.13478 , accessed 13 February 2025.

(2) MT-DNA haplogroup mutation rate is thought to be 4.6 times slower than that found in Y-DNA. This can make it difficult to estimate if a MRCA shared by two kits sits within a useful genealogical timeframe. It is useful though in establishing if two people do or do not share a direct maternal line of descent. See: Charles F. Kerchner jnr, 'An Example of How to Use TMRCA Calculators for mtDNA Results', Kerchner's DNA Testing and Genetic Genealogy Information and Resources Page, 7 November 2006, http://www.kerchner.com/mtdnatmrcacalculations.htm , accessed 13 February 2025. 

(3) Archaeogenetics has allowed ancient human migration to be better understood by combining archaeology and genetics. This can be equally applied to an individual. See: George Bushby, 'Here's how genetics helped crack the history of human migration', the Conversation, 14 January 2016,  https://theconversation.com/heres-how-genetics-helped-crack-the-history-of-human-migration-52918 , accessed 13 February 2025.

(4) G.C. Binod, 'Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs): Origin, Significance and Detection strategies', 11 May 2023, https://thesciencenotes.com/single-nucleotide-polymorphisms-snps-origin-significance-detection/ , accessed 13 February 2025. 

(5) Colin Woollcott Mallett, Mallett Research Folder 0, Unpublished Y-DNA research project, F0000 MALLETT Folder (0) , accessed 11 Feburary 2025. 

(6) Tushar Chauhan, 'What are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)? Why do we use it?', Genetic Education, 3 July 2019, https://geneticeducation.co.in/what-are-short-tandem-repeats-strs-why-do-we-use-it/ , accessed 13 February 2025. For an overview of the SNP and STR marker research within the R1b-CTS3386 haplogroup project please see: R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project, 'Y-DNA SNP', Family Tree DNA Website, n.d., https://www.familytreedna.com/public/R1b-CTS3386?iframe=yresults, accessed 13 February 2025 & R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project, 'Y-DNA Classic Chart', Family Tree DNA Website, n.d.,  https://www.familytreedna.com/public/R1b-CTS3386/default.aspx?section=ysnp , accessed 13 February 2025.

(7) Colin Woollcott Mallett, Mallett Research Folder 0.

(8)  According to tradition, both of these families were meant to descend from the two sons of King Milesius who landed in Ireland around 1699 BCE: the CARROLLs descending from the eldest son Heber and the FERGUSONs (the Anglicised version of McFERGUS) descending from the younger son Heremon. In the case of the men descending from BY42759 this clearly can't be the case as according to the said chart all these CARROLLs and FERGUSONs share an ancestor who lived as recently as around 1000 CE. See: Author Unknown, 'Ancient Origins of Ireland', House of Names, n.d., https://www.houseofnames.com/blogs/Ancient-Origins-of-Ireland , accessed 13 February 2025; John Rooney, 'The Carroll Family' (from A Genealogical History of Irish Families with their Crests and Armorial Bearings, 1895), Library Ireland, n.d., https://www.libraryireland.com/irish-families/carroll.php , accessed 13 February 2025; John Rooney, 'The McFergus or Ferguson Family' (from A Genealogical History of Irish Families with their Crests and Armorial Bearings, 1895), Library Ireland, n.d.,  https://www.libraryireland.com/irish-families/mcfergus.php , accessed 13 February 2025.

(9)  Author Unknown, 'Carroll: family name history', Irish History, n.d., https://www.irishhistory.com/genealogy/irish-surnames/carroll-family-name-history/ , accessed 13 February 2025; John Grenham, 'Carroll Surname History', johngrenham.com, n.d., https://www.johngrenham.com/surnamescode/surnamehistory.php?surname=Carroll&search_type=full , accessed 13 February 2025. 

(10) Author Unknown, 'The Famous Places of Clan Ferguson', Scotland Shop, n.d., https://www.scotlandshop.com/tartanblog/famous-places-clan-ferguson , accessed 13 February 2025.

(11) Author Unknown, 'A Brief History of the Fergussons', Clan Fergusson Society of North America, n.d., https://cfsna.net/about-2/clan-fergusson-society-of-north-america-3/history-of-the-society/fergussons-in-scotland-2 , accessed 13 February 2025.

(12) High King Niall of the Nine Hostages was officially number 87 in the line of Heremon. See: Michael O'Clery, 'Milesian Genealogies from the Annals of the Four Masters', Fianna Guide to Irish Genealogy, n.d.,  https://sites.rootsweb.com/~fianna/history/milesian.html , accessed 13 February 2025. 

(13) Larry Manross, 'DNA Link to Irish High King Niall', Manross Family History, n.d., https://manrossfamilyhistory.com/dna-link-with-king-niall , accessed 13 February 2025.

(14) Author Unknown, 'Niall of the Nine Hostages', Irish Genealogy Tool Kit, n.d., https://www.irish-genealogy-toolkit.com/niall-of-the-nine-hostages.html , accessed 13 February 2025.

(15) Author Unknown, 'Niall of the Nine Hostages'. 

(16) Larry Manross, 'DNA Link to Irish High King Niall'. 

(17) Contrast the following Ancestral paths: Author Unknown, 'Ancestral Path (R-M222)', Family Tree DNA Website, n.d., https://discover.familytreedna.com/y-dna/R-M222/path , accessed 13 February 2025 & Author Unknown, 'Ancestral Path (R-BY42759), Family Tree DNA Website, n.d., https://discover.familytreedna.com/y-dna/R-BY42759/path, accessed 13 February 2025. 

(18) Colin Woollcott Mallett, 'From Natives to Normans to Protestants: Irish surnames from the Ninth Century to the present day', The Write Side of History blog, 16 January 2025, https://thewrite5ideofhistory.blogspot.com/2025/01/from-natives-to-normans-to-protestants.html , accessed 13 February 2025. 

(19) ROBBINS is an English name based on the personal name Robert which was introduced by the Normans. See: Author Unknown, 'Robbins', Heraldry's Institute of Rome, n.d., https://www.heraldrysinstitute.com/lang/en/cognomi/Robbins/idc/600565/?srsltid=AfmBOorowR21xBiU5gnflk-aqw_cNejH3i5wVzxaEB_9PiEy1tl9C8_9 , accessed 13 February 2025.

(20) The surname VANCE is strongly associated with Ireland and Scotland. It is thought to be an Anglicised version of the Norman surname, de VAUX, originally meaning 'of the valleys'. See: Author Unknown, 'A Short History of the Vance Surname', Vance History Online blog, n.d., https://vancehistoryonline.blogspot.com/p/short-history-of-vance-surname.html , accessed on 13 February 2025. 

(21) Author Unknown, 'Milburn Surname', England's North East, n.d., https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/guide-to-north-east-surnames-m/ , accessed 13 February 2025.

(22) This is drawn from private Y-DNA group project work through the FTDNA site. Similar to the FERGUS(S)ON lines, there also seems to be a distant association between these MILBURN descendants with Ayrshire, Scotland.   

Figures and Illustrations

(i)  Colin Woollcott Mallett, prepared with data from Big Y Testing at FTDNA with map sourced from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_World_Without_a_Background.png

(ii) Colin Woollcott Mallett, prepared with data from Big Y Testing at FTDNA with map sourced from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Location_map_of_British_Isles.png

(iii) Colin Woollcott Mallett, prepared with data from Big Y Testing at FTDNA and analysed through the R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project.

(iv) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Carroll_Family_Plot_at_the_old_Catholic_burial_ground_at_Knockbride_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3827558.jpg

(v) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ferguson_(R._R._McIan).jpg

(vi) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Myths_and_legends;_the_Celtic_race_(1910)_(14760459036).jpg

(vii) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reivers_raid_on_Gilnockie_Tower.jpg

Bibliography

Author Unknown, 'Ancient Origins of Ireland', House of Names, n.d., https://www.houseofnames.com/blogs/Ancient-Origins-of-Ireland , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'Carroll: family name history', Irish History, n.d., https://www.irishhistory.com/genealogy/irish-surnames/carroll-family-name-history/ , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'The Famous Places of Clan Ferguson', Scotland Shop, n.d., https://www.scotlandshop.com/tartanblog/famous-places-clan-ferguson , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'A Brief History of the Fergussons', Clan Fergusson Society of North America, n.d., https://cfsna.net/about-2/clan-fergusson-society-of-north-america-3/history-of-the-society/fergussons-in-scotland-2 , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'Niall of the Nine Hostages', Irish Genealogy Tool Kit, n.d., https://www.irish-genealogy-toolkit.com/niall-of-the-nine-hostages.html , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'Robbins', Heraldry's Institute of Rome, n.d., https://www.heraldrysinstitute.com/lang/en/cognomi/Robbins/idc/600565/?srsltid=AfmBOorowR21xBiU5gnflk-aqw_cNejH3i5wVzxaEB_9PiEy1tl9C8_9 , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'Milburn Surname', England's North East, n.d., https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/guide-to-north-east-surnames-m/ , accessed 13 February 2025.

Author Unknown, 'A Short History of the Vance Surname', Vance History Online blog, n.d., https://vancehistoryonline.blogspot.com/p/short-history-of-vance-surname.html , accessed on 13 February 2025. 

Binod, G. C., 'Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs): Origin, Significance and Detection strategies', 11 May 2023, https://thesciencenotes.com/single-nucleotide-polymorphisms-snps-origin-significance-detection/ , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Bushby, George. 'Here's how genetics helped crack the history of human migration', the Conversation, 14 January 2016,  https://theconversation.com/heres-how-genetics-helped-crack-the-history-of-human-migration-52918 , accessed 13 February 2025.

Callaway, Ewen, 'Genetic Adam and Eve did not live too far apart in time', nature website, https://www.nature.com/articles/nature.2013.13478 , accessed 13 February 2025.

Chauhan, Tushar, 'What are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs)? Why do we use it?', Genetic Education, 3 July 2019, https://geneticeducation.co.in/what-are-short-tandem-repeats-strs-why-do-we-use-it/ , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Grenham, John. 'Carroll Surname History', johngrenham.com, n.d., https://www.johngrenham.com/surnamescode/surnamehistory.php?surname=Carroll&search_type=full , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Kerchner, Charles F. jnr,  'An Example of How to Use TMRCA Calculators for mtDNA Results', Kerchner's DNA Testing and Genetic Genealogy Information and Resources Page, 7 November 2006, http://www.kerchner.com/mtdnatmrcacalculations.htm , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Manross, Larry, 'DNA Link to Irish High King Niall', Manross Family History, n.d., https://manrossfamilyhistory.com/dna-link-with-king-niall , accessed 13 February 2025.

O'Clery, Michael, 'Milesian Genealogies from the Annals of the Four Masters', Fianna Guide to Irish Genealogy, n.d.,  https://sites.rootsweb.com/~fianna/history/milesian.html , accessed 13 February 2025.

R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project, 'Y-DNA SNP', Family Tree DNA Website, n.d., https://www.familytreedna.com/public/R1b-CTS3386?iframe=yresults, accessed 13 February 2025. 

R1b-CTS3386 and Subclades Project, 'Y-DNA Classic Chart', Family Tree DNA Website, n.d.,  https://www.familytreedna.com/public/R1b-CTS3386/default.aspx?section=ysnp , accessed 13 February 2025.

Rooney, John, 'The Carroll Family' (from A Genealogical History of Irish Families with their Crests and Armorial Bearings, 1895), Library Ireland, n.d., https://www.libraryireland.com/irish-families/carroll.php , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Rooney, John, 'The McFergus or Ferguson Family' (from A Genealogical History of Irish Families with their Crests and Armorial Bearings, 1895), Library Ireland, n.d.,  https://www.libraryireland.com/irish-families/mcfergus.php , accessed 13 February 2025.

Mallett, Colin Woollcott, Mallett Research Folder 0, Unpublished Y-DNA research project, F0000 MALLETT Folder (0) , accessed 13 February 2025.

Mallett, Colin Woollcott, 'From Natives to Normans to Protestants: Irish surnames from the Ninth Century to the present day', The Write Side of History blog, 16 January 2025, https://thewrite5ideofhistory.blogspot.com/2025/01/from-natives-to-normans-to-protestants.html , accessed 13 February 2025. 

Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page, accessed 13 February 2025.

From natives to Normans to Protestants: Irish surnames from the ninth century to the present day

A Celtic cross at St. David's Church, Naas, County Kildare, 

Rectorstdavids, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons (i)

I recently made a close study of the surnames of Ireland. The starting point of my enquiries was John O'Donovan's seminal series 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names' published in seven instalments in the Irish Penny Journal in 1841. Donovan (1806-1886) was an Irish literary scholar of great acclaim. I also consulted Irish Names and Surnames by Patrick Woulf (1872-1933) published in 1922. While sometimes contested by his successors, Father Woulfe's book remains a foundation stone of scholarship on the topic. Inevitably, I also turned to the voluminous works of Edward MacLysaght (1887-1986), a very famous Irish genealogist and scholar. While I undertook this work mostly to gain a better understanding of my own considerable Celtic heritage, there are specific research questions I sought to answer. How were Irish surnames formed? In what ways and why did they change over time? And lastly, using what I learned from my research to seek an answer to a personal enquiry: how did a Cornish family of Irish descent end up with a Norman surname (?!).

Ireland was in fact one of the earliest regions in the western world to develop a system of surnames. (1) There is a myth that surnames were established by King Brian Boru. (2) However, there is evidence of the use of surnames in what became Ireland by the later part of the first millennium, long before his reign. (3) These surnames were formed of course in the native language: Gaeilge. The earliest surnames were initially formed from the father's name prefixed with "Mc/Mac" (for father) or "O' " (for a patrilineal ancestor). (4) The rarer equivalent prefix for a specifically female descendant was "ni". (5) The words "giolla" and "maol" were eventually introduced as prefixes to denote a follower or servant, normally of a Saint. (6) Gradually surnames in Ireland expanded to incorporate occupations and personal characteristics. (7) It is rarer to encounter Gaelic Irish surnames based on a place of habitation. (8)

Most of these early Gaelic surnames were originally transitory, rather than hereditary, in nature. (9) Overtime though, the Irish, like the Welsh, adopted the practice of developing names that represented a 'veritable genealogy'. MacLysaght explained:

John MacMahon MacWilliam MacOwen MacShane was, of course, John MacMahon whose father's Christian name was William and his great grandfather's was Shane.

I'm not exactly sure then what MacLysaght would have made of Donal McShane Mallacht O'Neill of Shagrom in the Parish of Dungannon, County Tyrone who was a native granted land in 1610. His son's subsequent full name was constituted as Eugene McDonal McShane Mallacht O'Neill - a title that includes a personal name, father's name, grandfather's name, nickname (?) and clan name (?!). This all seems to imply that the practice was flexible or more complex than MacLysaght argued—the custom possibly prone to regional variation. (10) Indeed, Donal is listed under the surname 'Mallett' in David Donson's The People of Ireland 1600-1699! (11) The 1659 census, a primary source relied on by scholars for studies in this period, likely suffered from misinterpretation of that practice. (12)

Vikings at Dublin, 841 CE 

James Ward (1851-1924), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (ii)

To understand the development of surnames in Ireland it is necessary to understand its history of invasions and immigration. Vikings settled in Ireland during the Ninth Century and built the first real city states of the region in Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick. The Norse proved to be valued traders and an economic interdependence developed between their cities and the native Irish that helped to ensure their survival as much as the decline of the influence of the High Kingship. (13) The surname Doyle is thought to have derived from the Gaelic expression "dubh-ghall" meaning "dark foreigner". There is a strong belief that because O'Dubghaill cannot be found in the great Gaelic genealogies their eponymous ancestor was likely a Norseman. It is also mostly found in coastal counties where Norse settlements were located. (14) Many Norse given names were transformed into Irish surnames including O'Rourke or Groarke ("descendant of Rurarc") and O'Loughlin ("descendant of Lochlann"). (15)

A depiction of the marriage of Aoife and Strongbow at Waterford, 1170 CE 

Daniel Maclise , Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (iii)

The first true upheaval affecting surnames in Ireland was inflicted by the Normans from the late 12th Century. The system of patrilineal prefixes had become firmly established for at least a century before the arrival of the Normans. (16) One of the lasting legacies of the Norman invasion of Ireland was a large sub-set of Hiberno-Norman surnames. (17) For instance, the Normans introduced the enduring prefix "Fitz" to Ireland. (18) The murder of William de Burge, the third Earl of Ulster, in 1333 led to a weakening of English control and an increase in this "Hibernicization" of surnames particularly in the Kingdoms of Connaught and Munster. As O'Donovan insists, it is misleading to refer to the invaders and their descendants as 'English' considering the fact that their ancestors had "dwelt scarcely a century in England." Typically for Normans, they appear to have assimilated rather than conformed outright with the native population. Instead of simply taking Gaelic or Norse names, the local Normans reacted by adding the prefix "Mac" to the name of a personal ancestor. (19) This was one aspect of the Normans becoming "Hiberniores Hibernicis ipsis" or "more Irish than the Irish themselves"! (20)

English initiatives designed to prevent the settlers from 'going native' arguably inadvertently impacted the nomenclature of Ireland. The Statutes of Kilkenny passed in 1367 were designed to define the "cultural, racial and political identity of the declining English colony in Ireland." (21) One of these statutes specifically made it illegal for the English settlers and their descendants to adopt Gaelic surnames. (22) This edict was limited to the Irish 'Irish of the Pale' which consisted of Dublin, Meath, Louth and Kildare. (23)

Map of Ireland and its counties taken from Edward Hyde Claredon's The History of the rebellion and civil wars in England published in 1717 

Internet Archive Book Images, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons (iv)

A subsequent law passed in 1465 made it mandatory for every Irishman in the Pale to adopt an 'English' surname. While the genteel classes resisted, the lower orders in Dublin and Leinster complied. (24) Together, these laws may have ensured that many Norman surnames persisted despite a high degree of assimilation. The perseverance of Norman surnames led to surnames such as Burke, FitzGerald and Keating becoming indistinguishable from those of more traditional Gaelic origin such as O'Connor. (25)

The second upheaval of Irish nomenclature was instigated by the English during the plantation period beginning in the mid-15th Century. The Elizabethan 'settlers' and their descendants were never 'Hibernicized' as the Normans had been. (26) Inversely, throughout the Seventeenth Century, the prefixes "Mc" or "Mac" and "O' " were abandoned by the native population, reflecting an inclination by many to bury their Irishness in the wake of the second conquest. (27) Therefore, many of the surnames of Ulster which possess the "Mc" and "Mac" prefixes are descended from Seventeenth Century Scottish planters. (28) Many Irish surnames over the centuries then were gradually anglicised. (29) MacLysaght somewhat sniffily asserts that the "mutilation and corruption of Irish surnames took place in the seventeenth and to a lesser extent the eighteenth centuries." (30) This corruption sometimes took the form of adopting an English pronunciation of a Gaelic name. (31) O'Donovan lamented that many Gaelic surnames were translated "erroneously" and on the basis of "fancied resemblance in the sounds of both" as opposed to shared meaning. (32) The more genteel native classes favoured a shift to French and Spanish surnames. (33) John O'Donovan in the sixth instalment of his aforementioned 1841 series, related how a descendant of the ancient O'Malley family of County Mayo changed his surname to de Maillet. He rather unkindly observed:

...though his friends condescend sometimes to call him by this name, they can scarcely refrain from laughter while pronouncing it, for they know very well that he descends from Owen O'Malley, the father of the famous heroine Grania Wael, and chief of Umaillia or the Owles, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

There were likely many other instances of this kind of adaptation, however clusmy, across all classes. (34) This widespread aversion by the Irish to their Gaelic roots was not reversed until the later 19th Century through the work and encouragement of the Gaelic League. (35)

The revocation of the 'Edict of Nantes' accelerated Huguenot migration to Ireland. Even so, 'An Act to Encourage the Migration of Protestant Strangers' had already been passed more than twenty years earlier in 1662, reflecting their perceived value to the local economy as "merchants, manufacturers and bankers". (36) The great Huguenot migration of the Seventeenth Century introduced many new surnames. (37). The same was true with the migration of several hundred German Palatine families to Ireland in the early Eighteenth Century and the majority settled in County Limerick. (38) Regardless, the transplantation of surnames from England and elsewhere to Ireland was sometimes gentle and gradual. Many Anglo-Irish surnames for instance were likely introduced by small waves of migrants during the Medieval period. (39)

MacLysaght despaired of the inability to distinguish between identical names that are common in both Ireland and England such as Collins, Boyle and Smith. (40) While Mallett (and its variations Malet and Mallet) is a surname more common to England than Ireland, it is also found in both countries. Thankfully by combining DNA testing with archival research, it is now possible to be more certain of your 'deep ancestry', on the direct male line at any rate. Archaeogenetics has confirmed that my own patrilineal line may have arrived from what would be Scotland to Ireland around 1400 BCE and resided there as late as 1300 CE, perhaps even longer, before migrating to England. The most recent common ancestor shared with my highest-level Y-DNA match, who also incidentally shares my surname, probably lived somewhere between 1300 and 1500 CE. Our most recently traced ancestors were respectively born in Cornwall and Warwickshire, both around 1800 CE. (41) Indeed, UK taxation records from 1440 reveal that an Irishman named Tago Malet was living in Newton Ferrers, Devonshire! For all we know he could have been our family's eponymous ancestor! (42) Therefore, assuming my surname was adopted by an ancetsor in Ireland and not some kind of cultural camouflage or inadvertent adoption post-migration to England, it may have been derived because of one of three basic scenarios:

1. By virtue of Normans invading Ireland from the late 12th Century.

2. Through subsequent anglicisation of specific Gaelic surnames.

3. As a result of later immigration, including the mass arrival of Huguenots after 1685.

Old headstone in Errew graveyard overlooking Gulladoo Lough, County Mayo, Ireland, 2009 

Oliver Dixon / Old gravestone in Errew Graveyard (v)

The Norman surname Malet (and its subsequent variations) transplanted from Normandy and Brittany to the British Isels was Old French in origin and likely traced back to three separate Latin words. (43) John O'Hart in his Irish Pedigrees suggested that the surname Malet - in its primordial form and in Ireland - may have been one of the anglicised forms of the Gaelic surname O'Maoilraite. (44) The surname is listed in the poem titled "Many a branch of the race of Conn" by Giolla Iosa Mor MacFirbis written sometime before 1417. The poem references an O'Ma(o)ilraite whose lands were situated near Errew in the parish of Ballyhean, County Mayo. A long topographical poem, it lists all the land-owning families of Tir Fhiachrach and eulogises each clan head - although the spelling is erratic! (45) According to Father Woulfe, the prefix "Maol" originally meant "bald" or more specifically "tonsured" or shaven like a monk and took on the meaning of servant or devotee when connected with the name of a Saint; therefore "Maol Eoin" was a servant of John. But he also cautioned that it had become confused with the prefix "Mal" taken from the old Celtic word "Maglos" meaning a Chief. This was often used in a variety of ways with nouns, proper or not and even adjectives. Therefore "Maolcaoin" would translate as "Gentle Chief". (46) John O'Hart lists accompanying anglicisations of O'Maoilraite or O'Mailraite as Mulratty, Rattan and Raite. (47) I cannot ascertain the meaning of the Gaelic suffix "raite" but it could be a past participle of "abair" meaning to proclaim, declare or simply to disclose. (48) The poem refers to O'Ma(o)ilraite and his lands in the following manner:

Cul Daingin and Braenros ban,

Oiremh and the enture Imairi

Belong to O'Mailraite, hospitable to the man,

To Whom the literati and the feast were pleasing. (49)

It may be significant that the Scottish Gaelic word "rait" was used to refer to a hill fort and was derived from an earlier Picto-Celtic word "rath" which referred to a defensive structure. (50) The original meaning of O'Ma(o)ilraite is probably lost forever but it may be hidden in some combination of two of the four Gaelic words for 'servant'/'chief' and 'speaker'/'fort'. (51)

Malet is listed by O'Hart in his second volume of Irish Pedigrees as a Huguenot surname in Ireland - although it is noted that one arrived before the rule of Louis XIV began in 1643. (52). Following the mass Huguenot migration to Ireland, the surname Malet had become associated with the French Quarter of the city of Cork. (53) Furthermore, the family of the famous engineer and seismologist, Robert Mallet (1810-1881), began arriving as part of a chain migration from North Tawton, Devonshire to Dublin in the late Eighteenth Century. This family was descended from the illustrious Somerset family with links back to 1066 and all that. Furthermore, adding to the complexity, the first to arrive, Robert's Uncle and namesake, married a woman of alleged Huguenot ancestry making his descendants potentially both of Huguenot and Norman descent! (54)

While it is a more obscure, niche area of study, much has been written and published on the history of surnames in Ireland over the centuries. Following the initial innovation of the custom, the three greatest periods of adaption took place during the Norman Invasion, the Plantation period and the mass Protestant migrations of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. The first period saw the introduction of a new set of surnames that persist to the current day. The second period saw an upsurge in English surnames and the subsequent anglicization of the surviving Gaelic ones. The third period by virtue of mass migration, saw an influx of both French and other European surnames. No mastery of Irish Gaelic is required to comprehend the basic linguistic mechanics of the practices determining surnames in Ireland from the Ninth Century; however, the erratic translation of Gaelic surnames to phonetically similar English and European surnames makes tracing their individual history a task best left to the professional linguist. On a personal level and despite my best efforts, it is not yet possible to be certain of the exact origin of my own surname or even to finally conclude that it was in fact adopted during the twilight of my ancestors' ten to twenty centuries in Ireland. But if it was, then it likely occurred because of one of the three scenarios outlined. 

- Dr. Colin Woollcott Mallett, 17 January 2025.

Huguenot graveyard, intersection of French Church Street and Carey's Lane, City of Cork, County Cork, Republic of Ireland, 2015, Slongy, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons, (vi)

Endnotes

(1) Edward MacLysaght, The Surnames of Ireland, 1st edn, Irish University, Shannon, 1969, p 9.

(2) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9.

(3) There are a couple of common fallacies held concerning these prefixes. The spelling of the prefixes Mc and Mac does not distinguish a surname to be of specifically Irish or Scottish origin. MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9 & Edward MacLysaght, Irish Families Their Name, Arms and Origins, Allen Figgis, Dublin, 1972, p 16 Nor is the prefix O' inherently more genteel than the others. See: John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Third Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(46), 15 May 1841, p 366. 

(4) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9 & MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 16.

(5) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Third Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(46), 15 May 1841, p 366

(6) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9. 

(7) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9. 

(8) MacLysaght, Irish Families,  p 19.

(9) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 9. 

(10) Eamon O'Doibhlinn, 'Domhnach, More, Part III: The Plantation Era', Seanchas Ardmhacha: Journal of the Armagh Diocesan Historical Society, 3(1), 1958, pp 206, 220.

(11) David Dobson, The People of Ireland 1600-1699 Part 1, Clearfield, United States, 2009, p 57.

(12) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 20.

(13) J. C. Beckett, A Short History of Ireland, The Cresset Library, London, 1986, pp 13-5. Indeed the aforementioned prefix "Giolla" was derived from the Norse word "gisl" denoting a pledge or hostage. See: Patrick Woulfe, Irish Names and Surnames, M. H. Gill, Dublin, 1922., p 8. 

(14) MacLysaght, Irish Families, pp 128-9. 

(15) Mike Collins & Carina Collins, 'Do You Have a Viking Surname?', A Letter from Ireland website, https://www.aletterfromireland.com/irish-viking-surname/ , accessed 17 July 2024. 

(16) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 14. 

(17) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 12. Hiberrnia being the traditional classical name for Ireland used by the Greeks and Romans.

(18) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 12. 

(19) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Fourth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(48), 29 May 1841, pp 382-3. 

(20) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 15. 

(21) Hand, G. S., 'The Forgotten Statutes of Kilkenny: A Brief Survey', Irish Jurist, 1(2), Winter 1966, p 299. 

(22) Beckett, Short History, p 27. 

(23) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 16.

(24) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Fourth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(48), 29 May 1841, p , p 383.

(25) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 15. 

(26) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 15. However, Scottish settlers in Ulster were able to converse with the native population by virtue of a shared Gaelic heritage with both practical and evangelical motives. Inadvertently this process helped to perserve the native language in the long term. See: Caoimhghin O Murchadha, 'Presbyterians and the Irish Language (by) Roger Blaney', History Ireland, 5 (1), Spring 1997, pp. 54-55.

(27) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 16. 

(28) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 16. One of the other surnames in my own ancestry, Colgan, is likely an abbreviated form of MacColgan or the rarer O'Colgan. See: MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 83.

(29) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 23. 

(30) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 25.

(31) MacLysaght, Irish Families, p 26. For instance, a disapproving MacLysaght cited a case of a Minogue of County Clare during his service in the First World War, adopting the pronounciation "minnow-gew" over "Minnog"! 

(32) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Fifth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(50), 12 June 1841, p 398. Because many sounds in Gaelic cannot be properly captured in English, the subsequent translations were often distorted to the extent that it can be very difficult to identify the original source name. See: Aodan Mac Poilin, Studylib.net website, 'Gaelic Surnames in English', https://studylib.net/doc/7454542/gaelic-surnames-in-english--by-aod%C3%A1n-mac-p%C3%B3il%C3%ADn- , accessed 29 December 2024. In contrast, the translations of O'Heany or Mac Eneany to Bird are examples of erroneous attempts to translate on the basis of meaning despite there being no etymological connection between either surname; the mistranslations are solely based on their shared incorporation of the Gaelic word for 'Bird': ean. Please also refer to both: MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 30 & Edward MacLysaght, More Irish Families: A new revised and enlarged edition of More Irish Families, incorporating Supplement to Irish Families with an Essay on Irish Chieftainries, Irish Academic Press, Dublin, 1996, pp 124-5.

(33) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Sixth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(51), 19 June 1841, p 405. 

(34) John O'Donovan, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Sixth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(51), 19 June 1841, p 405. O'Donovan actually gave many other examples including O'Dorcy to D'Arcy and O'Dulaine to Delany.

(35) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 10. 

(36) Edward MacLysaght, Irish Life in the Seventeenth Century, Talbot Press, Dublin and Cork, 1939, pp 234-5.

(37) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 12. 

(38) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 12.

(39) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 12.

(40) MacLysaght, Surnames, 1st edn, p 22. 

(41) Colin Woollcott Mallett, Mallett Research Folder 0, Unpublished Y-DNA research project, F0000 MALLETT Folder (0) , accessed 01 January 2025. It may be significant that while descendants of my near ancestor subclade haplogroup R-BY42759 share predominately Celtic surnames such as Collins, Ferguson and Carroll, its descendants through divergent nodes, R-BY43560 and R-S11304, are characterised by Norman flavoured surnames: Robbins, Vance, Thompson, Clark and Mallett. Although R-BY43560 and R-S11304 diverged from their predecessor as early as 250 CE, this shift in surnames could be evidence of a subsequent cultural and/or geographical upheaval among a specific subset of descendants of R-BY42579. 

(42) National Archives (UK), Tax Assessment, Assessment for Devon, 8 July 1440, E 175/95/100 as cited in Author Unknown, 'Tago Malet (59471)', England's Immigrants 1330-1550: Resident Aliens in the Late Middle Ages website, https://www.englandsimmigrants.com/person/59471 , accessed 17 July 2024.

(43) Basil Cottle, The Penquin Dictionary of Surnames (2nd Edition), Penquin, London, 1978.p 232-3. Cottle proposed four basic definitions, three being Old French and traced back to separate Latin words: a nickname derived from the latin word for curse, "maledictus"; a diminuitive nickname formed from the word for hammer, "malleus"; a diminutive nickname based on the name "Maclovius" (or Malo) a Sixth Century Saint. 

(44) John O'Hart, Irish Pedigrees: Or, The Origin and Stem of the Irish Nation - Volume 2, J. Duffy and Company, Ireland, 1892, p 570.

(45) MacFirbis, Giolla Iosa Mor, 'Imda gablan do chloind Chuind' as cited in 'John O'Donovan, The genealogies, tribes and customs of Hy-Fiachrach, commonly called O'Dowda's country, Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin, 1844, pp 196-7.

(46) Woulfe, Irish Names, p 8.

(47) O'Hart, Irish Pedigrees, p 570.

(48) Unknown Author, 'Abair', New English Irish Dictionary Website, https://www.teanglann.ie/en/gram/abair , accessed 17 July 2024.

(49) MacFirbis, 'Imda gablan do chloind Chuind', p 197.

(50) David Rait, 'The Raitt Name', The Raitt Stuff Website, https://www.raitt.org/rait-name-origins.html , accessed 17 July 2024. 

(51) My guess at a meaning would be 'Chief of the fort' although, as mentioned before, habitation names were rare in medieval Ireland. 'Mallett' was a name evident in that region of Mayo until at least the Eighteenth Century as a Michael Mallett of Ballinrobe was convicted at Castlebar (near Errew) and transported to the Australian colonies in 1829. Dying in a convent at Albury in 1876, he reputedly lived to be 107 years of age! At the time a brother, aged 84, owned a farm nearby. See: Mercury, 'Victoria', 10 May 1876, p 3, http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-page792695 , accessed 17 July 2024. 

(52) O'Hart, Irish Pedigrees, p 462.

(53) Unknown Author, 'Huguenot Graveyard', Ask About Ireland website, https://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/architecture/the-cork-camera-club-(pre/churches-and-cathedrals/huguenot-graveyard/index.xml , accessed 17 July 2024. 

(54) Michael J. Tutty, 'John and Robert Mallet 1780-1881', Dublin Historical Record, 29(2), March 1976, pp 43-4. Indeed, Robert Mallet senior was buried in the Huguenot burial ground on Merrion Row in Dublin. 

Figures and Illustrations

(i) Rectorsdavids, Photograph of a Celtic cross at St. David's Church, Nass, County Kildare, 12 November 2017., Wikimedia Commons, 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_Cross_at_St._Davids_Church_Naas.jpg, accessed 8 August 2024.

(ii) James Ward, Vikings at Dublin, 841 CE, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vikings_841_at_Dublin.jpg, accessed 8 August 2024.

(iii) Daniel Maclise, Painting depicting marriage of Aoife and Strongbow, Waterford, 1170 CE, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg, accessed 8 August 2024. 

(iv) Edward Hyde Clarendon, Map of Ireland and its counties taken from Edward Hyde Claredon's The History of the rebellion and civil wars in England published in 1717, Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_history_of_the_rebellion_and_civil_wars_in_England,_begun_in_the_year_1641._With_the_precedent_passages,_and_actions,_that_contributed_thereunto,_and_the_happy_end,_and_conclusion_thereof_by_the_(14576287917).jpg, accessed 8 August 2024. 

(v) Oliver Dixon, Old headstone in Errew graveyard overlooking Gulladoo Lough, County Mayo, Ireland, 2009, Wikimedia Commons, 

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_gravestone_in_Errew_Graveyard_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1297638.jpg, accessed 8 August 2024. 

(vi) Slongy, Huguenot Graveyard, intersection of French Church Street and Carey's Lane, City of Cork, County Cork, Republic of Ireland, 2015, Wikimedia Commons,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Huguenot_Cemetery,_Cork.jpg, accessed 8 August 2024. 

Bibliography

Primary Sources

MacFirbis, Giolla Iosa Mor, 'Imda gablan do chloind Chuind' as cited in 'John O'Donovan, The genealogies, tribes and customs of Hy-Fiachrach, commonly called O'Dowda's country, Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin, 1844, pp 176-299.

Mercury (Hobart)

O'Donovan, John, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Third Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(46), 15 May 1841, pp 365-6. 

O'Donovan, John, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Fourth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(48), 29 May 1841, pp 381-4.

O'Donovan, John, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Names: Fifth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(50), 12 June 1841, pp 396-8.

O'Donovan, John, 'Origin and Meanings of Irish Family Family: Sixth Article', Irish Penny Journal, 1(51), 19 June 1841, pp 405-7.

Secondary Sources

Beckett, J. C., A Short History of Ireland, The Cresset Library, London, 1986.

Cottle, Basil, The Penquin Dictionary of Surnames (2nd Edition), Penquin, London, 1978.

Dobson, David, The People of Ireland 1600-1699 Part 1, Clearfield, United States, 2009.

Hand, G. S., 'The Forgotten Statutes of Kilkenny: A Brief Survey', Irish Jurist, 1(2), Winter 1966, pp 299-312.

MacLysaght, Edward, Irish Families Their Name, Arms and Origins, Allen Figgis, Dublin, 1972.

MacLysaght, Edward, Irish Life in the Seventeenth Century, Talbot Press, Dublin and Cork, 1939.

MacLysaght, Edward, More Irish Families: A new revised and enlarged editon of More Irish Families incorporating Supplement to Irish Families, with an essay on Irish cheiftainries, Irish Academic Press, Dublin, 1996. 

MacLysaght, Edward, The Surnames of Ireland (First Edition), Irish University Press, Shannon, Ireland, 1969.

O'Doibhlinn, Eamon, 'Domhnach, More, Part III: The Plantation Era', Seanchas Ardmhacha: Journal of the Armagh Diocesan Historical Society, 3(1), 1958, pp 190-222.

O'Hart, John. Irish Pedigrees: Or, The Origin and Stem of the Irish Nation - Volume 2, J. Duffy and Company, Ireland, 1892.

O Murchadha, C., 'Presbyterians and the Irish Language (by) Roger Blaney', History Ireland, 5 (1), Spring 1997, pp 54-56.

Reaney, P. H. & Wilson, G. M., A Dictionary of English Surnames, Taylor & Francis, London, 2006. 

Tutty, Michael J., 'John and Robert Mallet 1780-1881', Dublin Historical Record, 29(2), March 1976, pp 42-58.

Woulfe, Patrick, Irish Names and Surnames, M. H. Gill, Dublin, 1922.

Online Sources

Author Unknown, 'Abair', New English Irish Dictionary Website, https://www.teanglann.ie/en/gram/abair , accessed 17 July 2024. 

Author Unknown, 'Huguenot Graveyard', Ask About Ireland website, https://www.askaboutireland.ie/reading-room/history-heritage/architecture/the-cork-camera-club-(pre/churches-and-cathedrals/huguenot-graveyard/index.xml , accessed 17 July 2024. 

Collins, Mike & Carina, 'Do You Have a Viking Surname?', A Letter from Ireland website, https://www.aletterfromireland.com/irish-viking-surname/ , accessed 17 July 2024. 

Mac Poilin, A., 'Gaelic Surnames in English', Studylib.net website, https://studylib.net/doc/7454542/gaelic-surnames-in-english--by-aod%C3%A1n-mac-p%C3%B3il%C3%ADn-, accessed 29 December 2024. 

Mallett, Colin Woollcott, Mallett Research Folder 0, unpublished Y-DNA research project, F0000 MALLETT Folder (0) .

National Archives (UK), Tax Assessment, Assessment for Devon, 8 July 1440, E 175/95/100 as cited in Author Unknown, 'Tago Malet (59471)', England's Immigrants 1330-1550: Resident Aliens in the Late Middle Ages website, https://www.englandsimmigrants.com/person/59471 , accessed 17 July 2024.

Rait, David, 'The Raitt Name', The Raitt Stuff Website, https://www.raitt.org/rait-name-origins.html , accessed 17 July 2024. 

Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page, accessed 8 August 2024.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Many thanks to Richard Mallett (of the Berskshire and Devon Family History Societies) for his advice on this paper. Thanx always to my wife Kylie for proof reading all my scribbles - CWM

------------------